Vaporization phosphorization-mediated synthesis of phosphorus-doped TiO2 nanocomposites for combined photodynamic and photothermal therapy of renal cell carcinoma

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is a disease with high incidence and poor prognosis. The conventional treatment involves radiotherapy and chemotherapy, but chemotherapeutic agents are often associated with side effects, i.e., cytotoxicity to nontumor cells. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the development of novel therapeutic strategies for ccRCC. We synthesized spherical P/TiO₂ nanoparticles (P/TiO₂ NPs) by vaporization phosphorization (VP). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and ultraviolet-visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (UV-Vis DRS) analyses confirmed that the anatase TiO₂ surface was successfully doped with phosphorus and produced a large number of oxygen vacancies (O_V). Serving as a photosensitizer, P/TiO₂ NPs not only extended the photoresponse range to the near-infrared II region (NIR II) but also introduced a donor energy level lower than the TiO₂ conduction band, narrowing the band gap, which could facilitate the migration of photogenerated charges and trigger the synergistic treatment of photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT). During NIR irradiation in vitro, the P/TiO₂ NPs generated local heat and various oxygen radicals, including ¹O₂, ˙O₂^-, H₂O₂, and ˙OH, which damaged the ccRCC cells. In vivo, administration of the P/TiO₂ NPs + NIR reduced the tumor volume by 80%, and had the potential to inhibit tumor metastasis by suppressing intratumor neoangiogenesis. The P/TiO₂ NPs showed superior safety and efficacy relative to the conventional chemotherapeutic agent used in ccRCC treatment. This study introduced an innovative paradigm for renal Cancer treatment, highlighting the potential of P/TiO₂ NPs as safe and effective nanomaterials and presenting a compelling new option for clinical applications in Anticancer therapy.